Abstract

Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) are an emerging third-generation photovoltaic technology distinguished by their economical production methods, optical transparency, structural flexibility, and strong operational efficiency under reduced light intensity. Unlike traditional silicon-based solar cells, DSSCs separate light absorption and charge transport, using dye molecules to capture photons and inject electrons into a wide-bandgap semiconductor, commonly BiOCl or TiO₂, while a redox electrolyte regenerates the oxidized dye. Since the pioneering work of O’Regan and Grätzel in 1991, research has focused on improving efficiency, stability, and scalability through material innovations, nanostructured electrodes, novel sensitizers, and alternative electrolytes. DSSCs consist of key components: a high-surface-area photoanode for dye loading and electron transport, a sensitizer with strong absorption and stability, an electrolyte with suitable redox potential and conductivity, and a counter electrode with high catalytic activity. Fabrication involves substrate preparation, mesoporous semiconductor deposition, dye adsorption, counter electrode assembly, and electrolyte sealing, with emerging low-temperature methods enabling flexible devices. Characterization techniques such as UV–Vis spectroscopy, current–voltage measurements, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), and incident photon-to-current efficiency (IPCE) analysis provide insights into optical absorption, charge transport, recombination, and overall performance. While challenges remain in long-term stability and large-scale manufacturing, ongoing advances in materials engineering, device architecture, and encapsulation strategies continue to position DSSCs as a viable option for niche applications, particularly in building-integrated photovoltaics, indoor energy harvesting, and flexible electronic systems.